How macrophages respond to two-dimensional materials: a critical overview focusing on toxicity

With wider use of graphene-based materials and other two-dimensional (2 D) in various fields, including electronics, composites, biomedicine, etc., 2 D can trigger undesired effects at cellular, tissue organ level. Macrophages be found many organs. They are one the most important cells immune system they relevant study nanomaterials as phagocytose them. Nanomaterials have multi-faceted on phagocytic like macrophages, showing signs inflammation form pro-inflammatory cytokine or reactive oxidation species production, upregulation activation markers due to presence these foreign bodies. This review is catered researchers interested potential impact toxicity materials, particularly focusing few-layer graphene, graphene oxide, quantum dots, well promising containing molybdenum, manganese, boron, phosphorus tungsten. We describe applications growing area research, possible risks ions molecules used production those produced by degradation dissolution materials.